Education Drivers

Teacher Preparation: Instructional Effectiveness (Pedagogy)

Discussions of teacher preparation generally focus on content (what to teach) rather than pedagogy (how to teach). Teacher training has changed little in 100 years. Preparation programs rely on lectures supplemented with 8 weeks of student teaching under minimal university oversight. Lecturing persists for various reasons: It requires nominal effort, instructors have greater control of what is presented, and assessing mastery of the material is easy using tests and papers. There are significant disadvantages to lecturing. Listening to a lecturer and answering questions during the lecture are very different from being able to perform skillfully in a real-world setting. Research shows that the most effective training of complex skills occurs when the training follows the elementary paradigm “I do,” “we do,” “you do.” This model relies on introducing skills through lectures and discussions, in tandem with demonstrating the skills (I do). This is followed by learners practicing the skills alongside a coach (we do), and finally the student teacher performing independently with feedback from the coach (you do). Research suggests it is only when coaching is added to the mix that skills are fully mastered and used effectively in the classroom.

Teacher Preparation: Instructional Effectiveness Overview

Teacher Preparation: Instructional Effectiveness

Cleaver, S., Detrich, R., States, J. & Keyworth, R. (2021). Teacher Preparation: Instructional Effectiveness. Oakland, CA: The Wing Institute. https://www.winginstitute.org/pre-service-teacher-instructional-effectiveness.

Teachers play a central role in student success (Hattie, 2009; Nye et al., 2004). The experiences that teacher candidates have while in teacher preparation programs shape their future students’ success (Bacharach et al., 2010). To best prepare teachers, teacher preparation programs must use instructional methods that effectively contribute to teacher candidates learning and mastering important skills.

The purpose of this overview is to provide information about how university teacher preparation programs train teachers, or their instructional effectiveness. Teaching methods are approaches to teaching and learning that translate concepts and abstractions into applied ideas and strategies (Burden & Byrd, 2010).

This overview does not focus on what content teachers should teach or what teachers should know (see Curriculum Content for Teacher Training Overview) or on experience (see Student Teaching Overview).

Important questions about instructional effectiveness include:

  • What methods of instruction are most effective for training teachers?
  • How well do teacher preparation programs align with most effective practices?
  • Can performance assessment exams serve as instructional experiences for teacher candidates?

History of Teacher Preparation Programs

In the 19th century, teacher education occurred in a variety of settings including normal schools that were specifically dedicated to training teachers. In the 20th century, teacher training moved to state colleges and regional universities. Through these transformations, teacher education broadened beyond simply teaching technical routines and information to encompass a liberal arts education (Larabee, 2008) as well as including instruction in how to teach more diverse groups of students (Darling-Hammond, 2016). This shift in focus to student learning necessitated a change in how teacher preparation programs approached teacher education.

In 1964, Nate Gage, an early advocate of research on teaching, argued for more research on how to teach teachers. He called for studies with stronger methodologies that connected teaching behaviors to student outcomes. Gage was convinced that research on teaching methods could be applied to better prepare teachers. He argued that what teachers need to learn to be effective is not intuitive, but specific skills that must be taught and reinforced (Darling-Hammond, 2016).

Since the middle of the 20th century, research on how teachers teach has increased and expanded into new methodologies and more nuanced research questions (Darling-Hammond, 2016). In the 1980s, the National Board for Professional Teaching Standards launched professional standards to strengthen teacher education and certification. In the subsequent decade, educational researcher Linda Darling-Hammond (1996) argued that the next century would be about the advancement of teaching and would focus on developing teachers who could support strategic, complex learning.

The current context for teacher education is a challenging one. In 2016, the American Association of State Colleges and Universities (AASCU) surveyed university presidents, provosts, and education deans. It found that:

  • The teaching profession is being asked to do more with less, particularly growing expectations, declining teacher autonomy, low pay, constrained budgets, and ongoing teacher shortages.
  • University-based teacher education programs are facing declining enrollment and increasing costs.
  • Educators must deal with increased federal and state accountability burdens and demands.
  • The U.S. student population is growing in size and diversity, increasing the demand for teachers, which makes the other challenges more acute.

In response to these challenges, teacher preparation programs are working to improve practices and policies, increase partnerships with schools, increase robust assessment protocols, and pursue clinical experiences for teachers.

What Do Teacher Preparation Programs Need to Prepare Teachers to Do?

The scope of what teacher candidates need to learn is broad. Research has identified four key skill areas that teachers need to master: formative assessment, classroom management, teaching strategies, and instruction in writing, math, science, and reading (Hattie, 2009). In short, teachers need to manage classrooms effectively, including deploying research-based strategies to teach and manage behaviors across a school day (Greenberg et al., 2014). Teachers must also be able to collect and manage large amounts of formative assessment data, and use the data to advance student achievement (Everston & Weinstein, 2013). In addition to technical competencies, teachers need soft skills, and teacher preparation programs should incorporate such skills as relationship building and collaboration (States et al., 2018; Tang et al., 2015). Finally, diversity in classrooms is increasing and teachers must be prepared to teach students from linguistically diverse backgrounds (Mitchell, 2020) and students with disabilities (National Center for Education Statistics, 2020; Rahman et al., 2010).

Given all that teacher candidates need to master, how can teacher preparation programs teach them most effectively?

Research on Instructional Effectiveness

We can draw from research on general institutional practices used in higher education as well as strategies specifically used in teacher preparation to understand the potential strengths of various methods of training.

What Methods of Instruction Are Most Effective for Training Teachers?

Of the instructional methods used in higher education, perhaps the most familiar are lecture and discussion. Also important are application experiences, in which teacher candidates apply and receive feedback on teaching practices. Application experiences encompass brief assignments as well as longer student teaching experiences.

  1. Lecture

A popular teaching method, lecture consists of delivering information, presenting a topic, or explaining content (Eison, 2010; Ganyaupfu, 2013). Although often criticized as a teaching method, lecture is still common (Paul, 2015). One critique of lecture is that students tend to lose interest, particularly in the middle (Bligh, 2000; Richards & Rogers, 2014). Lecture is also less participatory; although students may be called on, there is no exchange and development of ideas (Abdulbaki et al., 2018).

Freeman et al. (2014) conducted a meta-analysis of 225 studies that examined test scores or failure rates to compare student performance in undergraduate STEM courses using traditional lecturing versus active learning. Active learning practices included group problem solving, the use of personal response systems, and workshop courses. Average student test scores improved 6% with active learning and students were more than 1.5 times more likely to fail in classes with traditional lecturing. While this review did not look at teacher education courses, it does raise questions about how lecturing should be used in teacher preparation programs.

  1. Discussion

Another common practice in university classrooms, discussion engages students in the sharing and critique of ideas, and through this conversation, they reach a greater understanding of the topic and appreciation of other viewpoints (Brookfield & Preskill, 2005; McKeachie & Svinicki, 2006). Group discussion may produce greater participation, self-confidence, and student performance outcomes (Perkins & Sardis, 2001; Yoder & Hochevar, 2005). Discussion is also an opportunity to develop students’ critical thinking skills as they present their ideas (Silverthorn, 2006). Finally, it provides a way to monitor students’ understanding (Craven & Hogan, 2001).

Discussion is limited in that some students may dominate discussion while others are more passive (Brookfield & Preskill, 2005), or it may go on a tangent or get off track (Howard & Weimer, 2015).

            Class size is another potential limitation to discussion—the effectiveness of discussion is more difficult to monitor in a large introductory class than in a smaller class. Wright et al. (2017) examined the effect of a change to smaller class size on professors’ use of active learning strategies (writing activities, and small and large group discussion) in world language courses. Professors were interviewed before and after class size was reduced from 25 to 18 students. With a smaller class size, professors were able to implement more active learning strategies and create more classroom collaboration. More research into how professors in education courses engage students in active learning, including discussion, and how this translates to teacher proficiency would help us understand how this method of teaching impacts teacher candidates.

Abdulbaki et al. (2018) surveyed students in the English department of a university using a qualitative survey (Likert scale) with the goal of understanding students’ perceptions of the value and importance of discussion. A majority of respondents indicated that discussion was a good opportunity to interact and share knowledge. On the whole, students indicated that discussion was a good use of time and that they were not concerned about one person dominating the conversation. This study indicates that discussion could encourage students’ active participation. Further, discussion could help students develop their cognitive, language, and linguistic abilities. It is important to note that the students surveyed were in the English department; future research on how teacher candidates incorporate learning from discussion should be considered.

In the field of education, Mutrofin et al. (2017) used a quasi-experimental design to examine the difference between discussion alone and a combination of lecture and discussion on 168 teacher candidates in Indonesia. Results indicated that group discussion significantly affected student learning outcomes and was more effective than a combination of lecture and discussion. This study has limitations that may not extend to the American university context. Further research could explore how lecture and discussion combinations impact teaching candidates in the U.S. context. Also, additional research into how learning through discussion translates into classroom actions would be helpful.

  1. Application Experiences

Teacher candidates need to have the opportunity to apply what they are learning (Ingersoll et al., 2014). These application experiences could be within courses (e.g., an application assignment) as well as within the student teaching experience.

Simulation activities. Activities that provide a simple, accurate, and dynamic version of a situation are one way for teachers to gain application experiences within the bounds of the university classroom (Girod & Girod, 2008). In particular, simulations can provide teacher candidates with the opportunity to practice the same scenario in a safe setting (Badiee & Kaufman, 2015). In simulations, teacher candidates can take actions, reflect, and try another course of action without directly impacting students (Badiee & Kaufman, 2015; Dieker et al., 2014). In addition, simulations can provide teacher candidates with the opportunity to practice situations that are difficult to produce regularly in the real world, such as high-stress environments or specific groupings of students (e.g., a class with a high percentage of students with emotional disabilities), so that teacher candidates can prepare to approach these situations before they encounter them in real life (Dieker et al., 2007, 2014).

A recent development involves online classroom simulation that provides teacher candidates with practice in different teaching skills. In the simulation, teacher candidates can make decisions in the virtual classroom setting and receive feedback about their teaching actions and choices.

Badiee and Kaufman (2015) studied one online simulation (simSchool) in which 22 teacher candidates in western Canada used the simulation across three sessions. Teacher candidates then rated their experience. In general, ratings varied and were moderate. The most positive aspects were the realistic classroom challenges, profiles and learning characteristics, and academic performance outcomes. Participants noted that the user interface and range and realism of the teacher-student interactions could be improved.

Badiee and Kaufman (2014) also tested the effectiveness of the simSchool simulation as a way to prepare teachers for their work in the classroom. Teacher candidates (n = 22) used the software across two sessions. Scores for simulated learning improved between practice and actual simulation sessions with one student. Learning scores decreased as complexity increased from one student to five students. Overall, the participants indicated that they found the simulations helpful, although they expressed concerns about the interface.

Additional research on how engaging with online simulation translates into teacher efficacy and eventual teaching practice and student outcomes will be important as these tools become more developed.

Student teaching. A key application experience is student teaching, also called clinical in-service. Student teaching occurs when teacher candidates work with a cooperating teacher, typically for 10 weeks or one semester. Student teaching is a nearly ubiquitous experience for teacher candidates, with the vast majority of higher education institutions requiring some sort of student teaching (Cleaver et al., 2020; Greenberg et al., 2011).

Overall, student teaching provides teacher candidates with an opportunity to apply what they have learned in class to working with students, including classroom management, supervision of daily routines, assessment, and instructional strategies (Cleaver et al., 2020; Greenberg et al., 2011; Wentz, 2001).

The National Council on Teacher Quality (Greenberg et al, 2011) set standards for high-quality student teaching:

  • Student teaching occurs for at least 10 weeks.
  • The university program has a role in selecting high-quality teachers as cooperating teachers.
  • A university supervisor provides observation and feedback at least four times during the semester.

Strong student teaching programs can be expected to produce teachers who enter the classroom with better skills (Pomerance & Walsh, 2020) and have higher self-efficacy or a belief in their own competence to plan, organize, and carry out activities to reach a goal (Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2010). However, research on how student teaching impacts specific teaching practices and student outcomes is lacking (Cleaver et al., 2020).

Coaching. A combination of observation, feedback, and reflection, coaching is an established professional development practice that has been shown to change teacher practice and can be used in teacher preparation programs (Kraft et al., 2018; Kretlow & Bartolomew, 2010; Raney & Robbins, 1989; Wesley & Buysse, 2006; Wood et al., 2016).

In particular, coaching can be a useful practice for teachers when they are developing and practicing a new skill (Kretlow et al., 2011). Side-by-side coaching, in which teachers are provided with in-the-moment feedback around their implementation of a focus skill, is an effective way for teachers to learn and practice new skills (Kretlow & Bartolomew, 2010; Kretlow et al., 2011).

Performance feedback. Feedback, or information on how a teacher candidate executes a specific teaching skill, is an important way for teachers to understand what they are doing well and what they need to improve. Quality feedback may be given during a post-teaching conference, when a teacher candidate and supervising teacher can can evaluate and interpret data from a teaching observation, discuss strengths and weaknesses, and make suggestions to act on (Acheson & Gall, 2003). In this way, feedback allows teacher candidates to collect and use data on their own teaching, including for reflection over time (Wilkins-Canter, 1997). Quality feedback also helps teachers address what Darling-Hammond (2006) described as a need for the integration of clinical work with course work and for theory to link with practice.

Feedback has been shown to increase the use of specific skills. For example, Sayeski et al. (2017) examined the role of practice and feedback on teacher candidates’ knowledge of a specific practice (providing students with opportunities to respond [OTR]). The study randomly assigned 48 teacher candidates in an undergraduate special education course to receive instruction using feedback or business as usual. Teacher candidates in the feedback condition outperformed candidates who did not receive feedback on a measure of knowledge and a performance measure for OTR delivery. However, there was no difference between the groups in the rate of OTR delivery; teacher candidates who received feedback demonstrated more knowledge and ability to execute OTR, while both groups used OTR procedures.

Capizzi et al. (2010) studied the efficacy of video analysis and feedback with self-evaluation on teacher candidates’ instructional delivery. A single-case multiple baseline across participants design was used to evaluate lesson components, rate of praise statements, and OTR rate. Teacher candidates video recorded their instruction and met with a consultant to evaluate their lesson and receive feedback. The teacher candidates increased the number of lesson components and amount of behavior-specific praises given during instruction. Effects varied for OTR. Future research on how this practice translates to teacher effectiveness in the classroom and student outcomes is needed.

Peer feedback (reciprocal teaching) is another way that teacher candidates can receive feedback (Shin et al., 2006; Wynn & Kromrey, 2000). In their study of peer feedback, Wilkins, et al. (2009) paired 64 elementary education teacher candidates to help one another as they learned and applied new teaching skills across two clinical teaching experiences. The teacher candidates indicated that:

  • They valued the peer feedback and had increased confidence and a better understanding of children through the feedback experience.
  • They learned more about themselves and about teaching as benefits of reflection.
  • They considered peer feedback less intimidating than supervisor feedback.
  • They learned from observing and giving feedback to their peers as well as receiving feedback.

However, a significant subset (18%) of teacher candidates said they did not see feedback as a way to improve their teaching.

There is more to learn about how feedback can be used in teacher preparation programs.

Additional research on how feedback is used in teacher preparation programs and what is most effective for various teaching tasks (e.g., behavior management) is necessary.

Reflection. In practice, teachers are often asked to reflect on teaching and learning (Greenberg et al., 2014). Reflection involves ascribing meaning through a disciplined thinking process that moves the learner forward (Dewey, 1910). This requires community and an attitude that values personal and intellectual growth (Dewey, 1910; Rodgers, 2002). The American Educational Research Association (AERA) Panel on Research and Teacher Education (Cochran-Smith & Zeichner, 2005) recommended that teacher candidates learn how to study their own practice. The idea is that teacher candidates must be able to reflect on their own practice to improve it. This aligns with how professional development often occurs in schools.

Nagro et al. (2016) conducted a quasi-experimental study to understand the effects of guiding teacher candidates through video-recording and self-reflection activities during student teaching internships to understand if these activities improved teacher candidates’ reflective abilities and instructional skills. Thirty-six teacher candidates participated; two groups participated in semester-long internships, recorded their instruction four times and wrote four reflections. Teacher candidates in the treatment group (n = 17) also received guidance and feedback to supplement their video analysis. Groups self-reported improvements in teaching ability. The treatment group demonstrated growth in reflective ability and instructional skills over time.

Slade et al. (2019) studied how writing reflections enhanced teacher candidates’ understanding of developmental sciences in the context of poverty. One-third of teacher candidates referenced course topics in their reflections, and they demonstrated a positive change in their perception of subject matter, in this case teaching and learning in the context of poverty. Slade et al. (2019) hypothesized that reflection could generate self-awareness, which might result in confidence and patience in working through real-world problems, and in changes in personal beliefs and world views.

How Well Do Teacher Preparation Programs Align With Most Effective Practices?

Certain features of teacher preparation are associated with stronger teaching results (Boyd & Bloxham, 2007):

  • Opportunities to learn academic content and content-specific teaching methods
  • Opportunities to apply specific classroom practices
  • Carefully designed student teaching experiences
  • Opportunities to study and develop curriculum
  • Performance assessments that evaluate teachers’ work with students

We do not know how many teacher preparation programs include these features or to what extent teacher preparation programs are using lecture, discussion, application, and other methods.

            A look at student teaching programs can give some insight into how university education departments tackle the important application experience. A review by the National Center on Teacher Quality (Greenberg et al., 2011) found that the majority of teacher preparation programs structured student teaching well, with at least 10 weeks of experience aligned with school calendars, and requirements that engaged student teachers in teaching responsibilities. Other elements, however, were left unstructured. A significant number of student teachers were not supervised by the university, and criteria for cooperating teachers were unclear or lacking. A 2017 review of undergraduate secondary programs found that only 6% incorporated two important elements: providing frequent feedback and evaluating the quality of cooperating teachers (National Council on Teacher Quality, 2017).

Another important element of teacher preparation programs is classroom management. Greenberg et al. (2014) identified five research-based approaches to behavior management that all teachers should master: rules, routines, praise, addressing misbehavior, and engagement. Many teacher education programs did not teach these skills consistently or did not provide explicit instruction in these skills. In many cases, teachers were introduced to behavior management models and through class discussion (e.g., discussion of assertive discipline or cooperative discipline). Of the programs surveyed, one-third provided some application of classroom management strategies. A smaller percentage (10%) explicitly taught and provided practice and feedback in classroom management strategies (Greenberg et al., 2014)

Can Performance Assessment Exams Serve as Instructional Experiences for Teacher Candidates?

Performance assessments that require teachers to document, record, and reflect on their lessons are relatively new. These assessments include the edTPA (Teacher Performance Assessment), and the Performance Assessment for California Teachers (PACT), among others.

Are performance assessments effective teaching tools for teacher candidates? Lin (2015) investigated whether edTPA provided a way to learn about a teaching preparation program. edTPA does provide opportunities for candidates to develop their teaching practice through the assessment experience, although it is incumbent upon the individual candidate to take the opportunity. To that end, teacher perception of these assessments may impact how effective they are as a teaching tool. Meuwissen et al. (2015) surveyed 104 teacher candidates in New York and Washington states about experiences and perceptions of edTPA. A majority (85%) of teacher candidates perceived edTPA to be unfair and 80% said the goals were unclear. When edTPA is a high-stakes assessment, it is onerous and potentially impacts teacher candidates’ ability to learn from the process, which includes coursework and clinical experiences. On the other hand, there was also evidence that performance assessments helped beginning teachers improve their practice, a process that continued beyond the assessment experience (Darling-Hammond et al., 2013).

This research points to a potential social validity concern with performance assessments, or a concern with the acceptability of the assessment that could impact how much teacher candidates perceive them as useful for learning. More time and experience with performance assessments are necessary to understand their impact on teacher learning and experience in the classroom.

Recommendations

The demand for public school teachers will continue, and teacher preparation programs will need to prepare teachers to work effectively in diverse and evolving classrooms. As the AASCU teacher preparation report (2016) noted: “We need preparation programs that produce educators who not only understand and are able to address the diverse needs of today’s school population but also can deliver and assess the skills and content that 21st century students need to learn” (p. 20).

Research is clear on what teacher candidates should know and be able to do (e.g., classroom management), and teacher candidates should explicitly be taught research-based strategies and how to implement them (Greenberg et al., 2014). To prepare teachers, university programs should include a variety of instructional methods, including traditional lecture and discussion as well as application and reflection experiences.

Lecture and Discussion

Lecture is a frequently used instructional method that has its limitations (Bligh, 2000; Richards & Rogers, 2014). Discussion should be incorporated into lecture to increase engagement and help teacher candidates gain a deeper appreciation of the topic as well as build critical thinking (Abdulbaki et al., 2018; Brookfield & Preskill, 2005; Perkins & Sardis, 2001; Silverthorn, 2006; Yoder & Hochevar, 2005).

Application Experiences

Application experiences are important for teacher candidates to apply what they are learning through lecture and discussion (Ingersoll et al., 2014). They could include simulations (Girod & Girod, 2008) or student teaching that is implemented with strong practices (Cleaver et al., 2020; Greenberg et al., 2011). We know that clinical experiences (e.g., student teaching) are powerful and effective ways to train teachers; these aspects of teacher preparation programs should be strengthened (AASCU, 2016; Cleaver et al., 2020).

Teacher candidates benefit from engaging in a variety of application experiences, including simulation (Badiee & Kaufman, 2014) and coaching that incorporates observation and feedback (Raney & Robbins, 1989; Wesley & Buysse, 2006; Wood et al., 2016).

Application experiences should include feedback to encourage the incorporation of specific skills (Sayeski et al., 2017). Feedback could be achieved through video-recorded lessons with self-evaluation (Capizzi et al., 2010; Nagro et al., 2016) or reciprocal teaching with peer feedback (Wilkins et al., 2009).

Feedback

Teacher candidates should receive systematic and objective feedback so that they can develop the ability to reflect on their performance in the classroom and take steps to become more effective (Acheson & Gall, 2003; Dever et al., 2003; Morehead et al., 2003). To be beneficial, both written and verbal feedback must be frequent and delivered at an appropriate time, when the teacher can make changes (Lowenhaupt & Stephanik, 1999; Wilkins-Canter, 1997).

Reflection

Reflective practice can provide the opportunity for application of knowledge and skills, and self-awareness in thinking through real-world problems (Slade et al., 2019).

Conclusion

Teacher preparation programs need to accomplish a lot in a short amount of time to prepare teachers for the classroom. To do that, university instructors must use the most impactful teaching methods, from lecture and discussion to application and reflection. Building teacher preparation programs that provide a variety of learning and application experiences will provide teacher candidates with the opportunity to learn, practice, and refine their skills before they enter the classroom.

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Mutrofin, Degeng, N. S., Ardhana, W., & Setyosari, P. (2017). The effect of instructional methods (lecture-discussion versus group discussion) and teaching talent on teacher trainees student learning outcomes. Journal of Education and Practice, 8(9), 203–209. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1138824.pdf

Nagro, S. A., deBettencourt, L. U., Rosenberg, M. S., Carran, D. T., & Weiss, M. P. (2016). The effects of guided video analysis on teacher candidates’ reflective ability and instructional skills. Teacher Education and Special Education, 40(1), 725. https://doi.org/10.1177/0888406416680469

National Center for Education Statistics. (2020). Indicator: Students with disabilities. U.S. Department of Education. https://nces.ed.gov/programs/coe/indicator_cgg.asp

National Council on Teacher Quality. (2017). A closer look at student teaching: Undergraduate secondary programs.https://www.nctq.org/dmsView/US_2017_ST_Findings

Nye, N., Konstantopoulos, S., & Hedges, L. (2004). How large are teacher effects? Educational evaluation and policy analysis, 26(3), 237–257.

Paul, A. M. (2015, September 12). Are college lectures unfair? Sunday Review. The New York Times.

Perkins, D. V. & Saris, R. N. (2001). A “jigsaw classroom” technique for undergraduate statistics courses. Teaching of Psychology, 28(2), 111–113 https://doi.org/10.1207/S15328023TOP2802_09

Pomerance, L., & Walsh, K. (2020). 2020 teacher prep review: Clinical practice and classroom management. National Council on Teacher Quality. https://www.nctq.org/review/docs/NCTQ%202020%20Teacher%20Prep%20Review_Clinical%20Practice%20and%20Classroom%20Management_Final_10.19.pdf

Rahman, F. A., Scaife, J. Yahya, N. A. & Jalil, H. A. (2010). Knowledge of diverse learners: Implications for the practice of teaching. International Journal of Instruction, 3(2), 83–96. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED522935

Raney, P. & Robbins, P. (1989). Professional growth and support through peer coaching. Educational Leadership, 35(6), 35–38.

Richards, J. C., & Rodgers, T. S. (2014). Approaches and methods in language teaching. Cambridge University Press.

Rodgers, C. (2002). Defining reflection: Another look at John Dewey and reflective thinking. Teacher’s College Record, 104(4), 842–866.

Sayeski, K. L., Hamilton-Jones, B., Cutler, G., Earle, G. A., & Husney, L. (2017). The role of practice and feedback for developing teacher candidate’s opportunities to respond expertise. Teacher Education and Special Education, 42(1), 18–35. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0888406417735876

Shin, E., Wilkins, E., & Ainsworth, J. (2006). The nature and effectiveness of peer feedback during an early clinical experience in an elementary education program. Action in Teacher Education, 28(4), 40–52.

Silverthorn, D. U. (2006). Teaching and learning in the interactive classroom. Advances in Physiology Education, 30(4), 135-140. https://doi.org/10.1152/advan.00087.2006

Skaalvik, E. M., & Skaalvik, S. (2010). Teacher self-efficacy and teacher burnout: A study of relations. Teaching and Teacher Education 26(4), 1059–1069.

Slade, M. L., Burnham, T. J., Catalana, S. M., & Waters, T. (2019). The impact of reflective practice on teacher candidates’ learning. International Journal for the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, 13(2), 1–8. https://digitalcommons.georgiasouthern.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1821&context=ij-sotl

States, J., Detrich, R., & Keyworth, R. (2018). Overview of teacher soft skills. The Wing Institute. www.winginstitute.org/teacher-compentencies-soft-skills[SL1] [RD2] 

Tang, K. N., Haskim, N. H., & Yumus, H. M. (2015). Novice teacher perceptions of the soft skills needed in today’s workplace. Social and Behavioral Science, 177, 284–288.

Wentz, P. (2001). The student teaching experience: Cases from the classroom. Prentice Hall.

Wesley, P. W., & Buysse, V. (2006). Making the case for evidence-based policy. In V. Buysse & P. W. Wesley (Eds.) Evidence-based practice in the early childhood field (pp. 117–159). Zero to Three.

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Wynn, M., & Kromrey, J. (2000). Paired peer placement with peer coaching to enhance prospective teachers’ professional growth in early field experience. Action in Teacher Education, 22(2A), 73–83.

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Publications

TITLE
SYNOPSIS
CITATION
Teacher Preparation: Overview

The purpose of this overview is to provide information about the methods of teacher preparation, the current state of research on teacher preparation, challenges, trends, questions, and recommendations for those working to prepare teachers for success in the classroom. 

Cleaver, S., Detrich, R. & States, J. (2020). Overview of Teacher Preparation. Oakland, CA: The Wing Institute.https://www.winginstitute.org/quality-teachers-pre-service.

Overview of student teaching

Student teaching, field experience, and practicum experience are powerful methods for training new teachers. These methods all feature working with students in classrooms or in laboratory environments that bridge the gap between university instruction and the experience of teaching. Integrating theory, knowledge, and skills, student teaching generally occurs under the direction of a supervisor at the end of the preparation process.

Cleaver, S., Detrich, R., States, J., & Keyworth, R. (2020). Overview of student teaching. The Wing Institute.

Treatment Integrity in the Problem Solving Process

The usual approach to determining if an intervention is effective for a student is to review student outcome data; however, this is only part of the task. Student data can only be understood if we know something about how well the intervention was implemented. Student data without treatment integrity data are largely meaningless because without knowing how well an intervention has been implemented, no judgments can be made about the effectiveness of the intervention. Poor outcomes can be a function of an ineffective intervention or poor implementation of the intervention. Without treatment integrity data, the is a risk that an intervention will be judged as ineffective when, in fact, the quality of implementation was so inadequate that it would be unreasonable to expect positive outcomes.

Detrich, R., States, J. & Keyworth, R. (2017). Treatment Integrity in the Problem Solving Process. Oakland, Ca. The Wing Institute.

 

Science and the Education of Teachers

This paper highlights the importance of making the preparation of teachers as scientific as possible by basing instruction on scientific evidence and making teaching an applied science.

Kauffman, J. M. (2012). Science and the Education of Teachers. In Education at the Crossroads: The State of Teacher Preparation (Vol. 2, pp. 47-64). Oakland, CA: The Wing Institute.

Introduction: Proceedings from the Wing Institute’s Fifth Annual Summit on Evidence-Based Education: Education at the Crossroads: The State of Teacher Preparation.

This article shared information about the Wing Institute and demographics of the Summit participants. It introduced the Summit topic, sharing performance data on past efforts of school reform that focused on structural changes rather than teaching improvement. The conclusion is that the system has spent enormous resources with virtually no positive results. The focus needs to be on teaching improvement.

Keyworth, R., Detrich, R., & States, J. (2012). Introduction: Proceedings from the Wing Institute’s Fifth Annual Summit on Evidence-Based Education: Education at the Crossroads: The State of Teacher Preparation. In Education at the Crossroads: The State of Teacher Preparation (Vol. 2, pp. ix-xxx). Oakland, CA: The Wing

Proceedings from the Wing Institute’s Fifth Annual Summit on Evidence-Based Education: Education at the Crossroads: The State of Teacher Preparation

This article shared information about the Wing Institute and demographics of the Summit participants. It introduced the Summit topic, sharing performance data on past efforts of school reform that focused on structural changes rather than teaching improvement. The conclusion is that the system has spent enormous resources with virtually no positive results. The focus needs to be on teaching improvement.

Keyworth, R., Detrich, R., & States, J. (2012). Introduction: Proceedings from the Wing Institute’s Fifth Annual Summit on Evidence-Based Education: Education at the Crossroads: The State of Teacher Preparation. In Education at the Crossroads: The State of Teacher Preparation (Vol. 2, pp. ix-xxx). Oakland, CA: The Wing

Effective Teachers Make a Difference

This analysis examines the available research on effective teaching, how to impart these skills, and how to best transition teachers from pre-service to classroom with an emphasis on improving student achievement. It reviews current preparation practices and examine the research evidence on how well they are preparing teachers

States, J., Detrich, R. & Keywroth, R. (2012). Effective Teachers Make a Difference. In Education at the Crossroads: The State of Teacher Preparation (Vol. 2, pp. 1-46). Oakland, CA: The Wing Institute.

Professional Learning That Makes An Impact
This paper discusses the critical elements of effective teacher coaching.
Knight, J. (2013). Professional Learning That Makes An Impact Retrieved from ../../uploads/docs/Accountability%20and%20Autonomy.pdf.

 

Data Mining

TITLE
SYNOPSIS
CITATION
How Much Formal Training Do Teachers Get?
The analysis reviews school teacher earned degree data obtained from the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) Digest of Education Statistics (2008).
Keyworth, R. (2010). How Much Formal Training Do Teachers Get? Retrieved from how-much-formal-training.
How important is it for teachers to receive subject matter training in order to obtain a teaching credential?
This inquiry lookes at two meta-analyses on the importance of subject matter training in teacher pre-service instruction.
States, J. (2010). How important is it for teachers to receive subject matter training in order to obtain a teaching credential? Retrieved from how-important-is-it.
How important in increasing student achievement is the training of teachers in the subject matter they will teach students?
This literature review tries to answer the question; does the quality and amount of subject matter pre-service training translate into better qualified teachers?
States, J. (2011). How important in increasing student achievement is the training of teachers in the subject matter they will teach students? Retrieved from how-important-in-increasing.
What does current research tell us about the effect of four- and five-year teacher preparation programs on the quality of teachers and student achievement?
This analysis lookes at the quality of research comparing four versus five-year teacher credential programs to identify which approach produces the best teachers.
States, J. (2011). What does current research tell us about the effect of four- and five-year teacher preparation programs on the quality of teachers and student achievement? Retrieved from what-does-current-research.
What Field Experience Methods Produce the Best Results?
This is a review of three meta-analyses on the impact of differing types of teacher field (clinical) experience.
States, J. (2011). What Field Experience Methods Produce the Best Results? Retrieved from what-field-experience-methods.
Is Teacher Preparation Challenging Enough?
This analysis examines the rigor of teacher pre-service coursework in comparison to other common disciplines.
States, J. (2014). Is Teacher Preparation Challenging Enough? Retrieved from is-teacher-preparation-challenging.

 

Presentations

TITLE
SYNOPSIS
CITATION
Overcoming Gaps Between Evidence-Based Instructional Practices and Current Preparation of General and Special Education Teachers

This paper reviews current teacher preparation in the context of its failure to include well-established evidence-based practices and identifies strategies for improvement.

Reschly, D. (2010). Overcoming Gaps Between Evidence-Based Instructional Practices and Current Preparation of General and Special Education Teachers [Powerpoint Slides]. Retrieved from 2010-wing-presentation-dan-reschly.

Science and the Education of Teachers
This paper highlights the importance of making the preparation of teachers as scientific as possible by basing instruction on scientific evidence and making teaching an applied science.
Kauffman, J. (2010). Science and the Education of Teachers [Powerpoint Slides]. Retrieved from 2010-Wing-Presentation-James-Kauffman.
Teacher Coaching: The Missing Link in Teacher Professional Development
Research suggests that coaching is one of the most effective strategies in training teachers. This paper identifies the critical practice elements of coaching and their absence in teacher training.
Keyworth, R. (2013). Teacher Coaching: The Missing Link in Teacher Professional Development [Powerpoint Slides]. Retrieved from 2013-calaba-presentation-randy-keyworth.
Teacher Professional Development
This paper reviewed the current research on best practices for teacher training, the current model for teacher training, and the gaps between research and practice.
Keyworth, R. (2013). Teacher Professional Development [Powerpoint Slides]. Retrieved from 2013-wing-presentation-redux-randy-keyworth.
Professional Learning That Makes An Impact
This paper discusses the critical elements of effective teacher coaching.
Knight, J. (2013). Professional Learning That Makes An Impact [Powerpoint Slides]. Retrieved from 2013-wing-presentation-jim-knight.
From "Learning to Learn" to "Training to Teach": Changing the Culture of Teacher Preparation
This paper discusses the results of the National Council on Teacher Quality’s first nation-wide study of 2,420 university teacher preparation programs across 1,130 institutions.
McKee, A. (2014). From "Learning to Learn" to "Training to Teach": Changing the Culture of Teacher Preparation [Powerpoint Slides]. Retrieved from 2014-wing-presentation-arthur-mckee.
What We Know About Teacher Preparation Programs
This paper examines effective teaching, how to impart these skills, and how to best transition teachers into the classroom. Preparation practices are analyzed to determine how well we are succeeding in preparing teachers.
States, J. (2010). What We Know About Teacher Preparation Programs [Powerpoint Slides]. Retrieved from 2010-aba-presentation-jack-states.
TITLE
SYNOPSIS
CITATION
Teachers' Subject Matter Knowledge as a Teacher Qualification: A Synthesis of the Quantitative Literature on Students' Mathematics Achievement

The aim of this paper is to examine a variety of features of research that might account for mixed findings of the relationship between teachers' subject matter knowledge and student achievement based on meta-analytic technique.

Ahn, S., & Choi, J. (2004). Teachers' Subject Matter Knowledge as a Teacher Qualification: A Synthesis of the Quantitative Literature on Students' Mathematics Achievement. Online Submission.

Evaluating teacher preparation programs with teacher evaluation ratings: Implications for program accountability and improvement

The author uses teachers’ ratings on the North Carolina Educator Evaluation System to determine whether teacher preparation programs (TPPs) are associated with the evaluation ratings of their initially prepared teachers. 

Bastian, K. C., Patterson, K. M., & Pan, Y. (2017). Evaluating teacher preparation programs with teacher evaluation ratings: Implications for program accountability and improvement. Journal of Teacher Education, 69(5), 429–447.

Preparing general education teachers to improve outcomes for students with disabilities.

This policy brief lays out five components of a vision for the future and identifies opportunities to support teacher education reform. Examples of promising developments are also addressed that involve full-scale program redesign featuring collaboration across general and special education.

Blanton, L. P., Pugach, M. C., & Florian, L. (2011). Preparing general education teachers to improve outcomes for students with disabilities. Washington, DC: American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education; National Center for Learning Disabilities. Retrieved from https://www.ncld.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/aacte_ncld_recommendation.pdf

What’s the use of lectures?

In one of the highest selling books on higher/further education to date, Bligh begins by arguing that lectures are most suitable for teaching information, not promoting thought or inspiring changes in attitudes. He goes on to detail the factors that affect the learning of information. The text is formed around a thorough consideration of the techniques of lecturing, including organization, how to make a point, use handouts, and obtain feedback, but it moves beyond lecturing to discuss alternatives when they are appropriate.

Bligh, D. A. (1998). What's the Use of Lectures?. Intellect books.

Development and validation of the clarity indicators scale

This study was conducted to create a reliable and valid low- to medium-inference, multidimensional measure of instructor clarity from seminal work across several academic fields. The five factors were explored in regards to their ability to predict the outcomes. Implications for instructional communication researchers are discussed.

Bolkan, S. (2017). Development and validation of the clarity indicators scale. Communication Education66(1), 19-36.

Teachers as leaders of professional learning: Lessons from Ontario’s Teacher Learning and Leadership Program

This article discusses Ontario’s Teachers Learning and Leadership Program (TLLP), which aims to support experienced teachers’ professional learning, develop teachers’ leadership skills, and facilitate knowledge exchange to share practices. The author’s research identifies considerable benefits of professional learning led “by, with and for” experienced teachers involving collaborative learning and sharing of practices.

Campbell, C. (2015). Teachers as leaders of professional learning: Lessons from Ontario’s Teacher Learning and Leadership Program (TLLP). Education Canada55(1), 1-3.

Value-added measures: How and why the strategic data project uses them to study teacher effectiveness

This brief explains how and why Strategic Data Project (SDP) uses value-added measures for our diagnostic work. We also explain how value-added measures relate to other measures of teacher effectiveness and the limitations of value-added measures.

Center for Education Policy Research. (2011). Value-added measures: How and why the strategic data project uses them to study teacher effectiveness. Retrieved from https://hwpi.harvard.edu/files/sdp/files/sdp-va-memo_0.pdf

The effectiveness of secondary math teachers from Teach for America and the Teaching Fellows Programs

The study separately compares the effectiveness of teachers from each program with the effectiveness of other teachers teaching the same subjects in the same schools.

Clark, M. A., Chiang, H. S., Silva, T., McConnell, S., Sonnenfeld, K., Erbe, A., & Puma, M. (2013). The effectiveness of secondary math teachers from Teach for America and the Teaching Fellows Programs (NCEE 2013-4015). Washington, DC: National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. Retrieved from https://ies.ed.gov/pubsearch/pubsinfo.asp?pubid=NCEE20134015

Teacher Preparation: Overview

The purpose of this overview is to provide information about the methods of teacher preparation, the current state of research on teacher preparation, challenges, trends, questions, and recommendations for those working to prepare teachers for success in the classroom. 

Cleaver, S., Detrich, R. & States, J. (2020). Overview of Teacher Preparation. Oakland, CA: The Wing Institute.https://www.winginstitute.org/quality-teachers-pre-service.

Studying Teacher Education: The Report of the AERA Panel on Research and Teacher Education.

This book synthesizes and assesses existing research on teacher education, as well as
providing a rigorous and even-handed analysis of the weight of the evidence about the
impact of teacher education and pre-service education.

Cochran-Smith, M. and Zeichner, K. M. (2005). Studying Teacher Education: The Report of the AERA Panel on Research and Teacher Education. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Mahwah, NJ 07430

Studying teacher preparation: The questions that drive research. European Educational Research Journal, 14(5), 379–394

This article argues that research on teacher preparation over the last 100 years can be understood in terms of the major questions that researchers examined. The analysis is guided by the framework of “research as historically situated social practice,” which emphasizes that researchers’ interests, commitments, and social experiences guide the research questions they pursue and the theories and perspectives they adopt.

Cochran-Smith, M., & Maria Villegas, A. (2015). Studying teacher preparation: The questions that drive research. European Educational Research Journal14(5), 379-394.

An Evaluation of Teachers Trained Through Different Routes to Certification, Final Report

The study compares the effectiveness of different routes to teaching. It finds there is no significant difference in the effectiveness of teachers who were traditionally trained when compared to teachers who obtained training through alternative credential programs.

Constantine, J., D. Player, T. Silva, K. Hallgren, M. Grider, and J. Deke, 2009. An Evaluation of Teachers Trained Through Different Routes to Certification, Final Report (NCEE 2009- 4043). Washington, DC: National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education.

Crocker, L. (2005). Teaching for the test: How and why test preparation is appropriate. Defending standardized testing, 159-174.

One flashpoint in the incendiary debate over standardized testing in American public
schools is the area of test preparation. The focus of this chapter is test preparation in achievement testing and it's purportedly harmful effects on students and teachers. 

Crocker, L. (2005). Teaching for the test: How and why test preparation is appropriate. Defending standardized testing, 159-174.

The compositional effect of rigorous teacher evaluation on workforce quality

In this paper, we study how providing improved information to principals about teacher effectiveness and encouraging them to use the information in personnel decisions affects the composition of teacher turnovers.

Cullen, J. B., Koedel, C., & Parsons, E. (2016). The compositional effect of rigorous teacher evaluation on workforce quality. Working Paper No. 22805. Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research. Retrieved from https://www.nber.org/papers/w22805.pdf

Explicit instruction in mathematics problem solving

This study examines the impact of explicit instruction strategies on student mathematic performance.

Darch, C., Carnine, D., & Gersten, R. (1984). Explicit instruction in mathematics problem solving. The Journal of Educational Research, 351-359.

Strengthening clinical preparation: The holy grail of teacher education.

This article outlines the challenges to creating productive clinical experiences for prospective teachers, and identifies strategies that have been found successful in confronting these challenges

Darling-Hammond, L. (2014). Strengthening clinical preparation: The holy grail of teacher education. Peabody Journal of Education89(4), 547-561.

Does teacher certification matter? Evaluating the evidence

The authors respond to Dan Goldhaber and Dominic Brewer’s article in the Summer 2000 issue of Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis that claimed from an analysis of NELS teacher and student data that teacher certification has little bearing on student achievement. Goldhaber and Brewer found strong and consistent evidence that, as compared with students whose teachers are uncertified, students achieve at higher levels in mathematics when they have teachers who hold standard certification in mathematics. 

Darling-Hammond, L., Berry, B., & Thoreson, A. (2001). Does teacher certification matter? Evaluating the evidence. Educational evaluation and policy analysis23(1), 57-77.

Does teacher preparation matter? Evidence about teacher certification, Teach For America, and teacher effectiveness.

Recent debates about the utility of teacher education have raised questions about whether certified teachers are, in general, more effective than those who have not met the testing and training requirements for certification, and whether some candidates with strong liberal arts backgrounds might be at least as effective as teacher education graduates.

Darling-Hammond, L., Holtzman, D. J., Gatlin, S. J., & Heilig, J. V. (2005). Does teacher preparation matter? Evidence about teacher certification, Teach for America, and teacher effectiveness. Education Policy Analysis Archives/Archivos Analíticos de Políticas Educativas13, 1-48.

Developing and assessing beginning teacher effectiveness: The potential of performance assessments.

The Performance Assessment for California Teachers (PACT) is an authentic tool for evaluating prospective teachers by examining their abilities to plan, teach, assess, and reflect on instruction in actual classroom practice. The PACT seeks both to measure and develop teacher effectiveness, and this study of its predictive and consequential validity provides information on how well it achieves these goals.

Darling-Hammond, L., Newton, S. P., & Wei, R. C. (2013). Developing and assessing beginning teacher effectiveness: The potential of performance assessments. Educational Assessment, Evaluation and Accountability25(3), 179-204.

How we think

Our schools are troubled with a multiplication of studies, each in turn having its own multiplication of materials and principles. Our teachers find their tasks made heavier in that they have come to deal with pupils individually and not merely in mass. Unless these steps in advance are to end in distraction, some clew of unity, some principle that makes for simplification, must be found.

Dewey, J. (1910). How we think. DC Heath & Co. Boston, Mass224.

2020 teacher prep review: Program performance in early reading instruction

New data and analysis from the National Council on Teacher Quality finds significant progress on the science of reading instruction in teacher preparation. 

Drake, G., & Walsh, K. (2020). 2020 teacher prep review: Program performance in early reading instruction. Washington, D.C.: National Council on Teacher Quality. Retrieved from www.nctq.org/publications/2020-Teacher-Prep-Review:-Program-Performance-in-Early-Reading-Instruction

2020 teacher prep review: Program performance in early reading instruction

Of the five components of scientifically based reading instruction, traditional programs are
most likely to omit the first and most challenging instructional skill teachers need to teach
before children can learn to read: phonemic awareness.

Drake, G., & Wash, K. (2020). 2020 Teacher Prep Review: Program Performance in Early Reading Instruction. National Council on Teacher Quality.

Work together: But only if you want to.

Teachers work in isolation from one another. They view their classrooms as their personal domains, have little access to the ideas or strategies of their colleagues, and prefer to be left alone rather than engage with their colleagues or principals. Their professional practice is shrouded in a veil of privacy and personal autonomy and is not a subject for collective discussion or analysis.

DuFour, R. (2011). Work together: But only if you want to. Phi Delta Kappan92(5), 57-61.

Meta-analysis of the relationship between collective teacher efficacy and student achievement

Collective teacher efficacy is an emergent school level variable reflecting a faculty’s collective belief in its ability to positively affect students. It has been linked in the literature to school achievement. The research questions addressed the distribution of effect sizes for the relationship and the moderator variables that could explain any variance found among the studies.

Eells, R. J. (2011). Meta-analysis of the relationship between collective teacher efficacy and student achievement (Doctoral dissertation, Loyola University Chicago).

Cooperating teacher compensation and benefits: comparing 1957-1958 and 2012-2013

We offer a comparative investigation of the compensation and benefits afforded to cooperating teachers (CTs) by teacher education programs (TEPs) in 1957-1958 and 2012-2013. This investigation replicates and extends a description of the compensation practices of 20 US TEPs published by VanWinkle in 1959.

Fives, H., Mills, T. M., & Dacey, C. M. (2016). Cooperating teacher compensation and benefits: Comparing 1957-1958 and 2012-2013. Journal of Teacher Education67(2), 105-119.

Researchers and teachers working together to adapt instruction for diverse learners

This paper explain a three-stage process of Pilot Research, Formal Evaluation, and Scaling Up. Finally, we discuss several misconceptions about empirical research and researchers.

Fuchs, D., & Fuchs, L. S. (1998). Researchers and teachers working together to adapt instruction for diverse learners. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice.

Back to basics: Rules, praise, ignoring, and reprimands revisited

Research begun in the 1960s provided the impetus for teacher educators to urge classroom teachers to establish classroom rules, deliver high rates of verbal/nonverbal praise, and, whenever possible, to ignore minor student provocations. In that there have been significant advances in the knowledge of what constitutes effective classroom management, a review of past-to-present literature was conducted to determine whether it is time to alter the thinking about one or more of these basic behavioral strategies.

Gable, R. A., Hester, P. H., Rock, M. L., & Hughes, K. G. (2009). Back to basics: Rules, praise, ignoring, and reprimands revisited. Intervention in School and Clinic, 44(4), 195-205.

Culturally responsive teaching: Theory, research, and practice

Geneva Gay is renowned for her contributions to multicultural education, particularly as it
relates to curriculum design, professional learning, and classroom instruction. Gay has
made many important revisions to keep her foundational, award-winning text relevant for
today's diverse student population, including: new research on culturally responsive
teaching, a focus on a broader range of racial and ethnic groups, and consideration of
additional issues related to early childhood education.

Gay, G. (2018). Culturally responsive teaching: Theory, research, and practice. teachers college press.

Eyes on the Prize: Teaching Complex Historical Content to Middle School Students With Learning Disabilities

This study compared two approaches for teaching a history unit on the Civil Rights Movement (1954–1965) to middle school students with learning disabilities (LD) in general education settings.

Gersten, R., Baker, S., Smith-Johnson, J., Peterson, A., & Dimino, J. (2006). Eyes on the prize: Teaching history to students with learning disabilities in inclusive settings. Exceptional Children72, 264-280.

Contemporary special education research: Syntheses of the knowledge base on critical instructional issues.

These papers provide up-to-date, informative summaries of current knowledge and a base from which further venture into the critical area of instructional intervention in special education can occur.

Gersten, R., Schiller, E. P., & Vaughn, S. R. (Eds.). (2000). Contemporary special education research: Syntheses of the knowledge base on critical instructional issues. Routledge.

Teachers and testing

Discusses the uses and abuses of intelligence testing in our educational systems. Dr. Goslin
examines teachers' opinions and practices with regard to tests and finds considerable
discrepancies between attitude and behavior.

Goslin, D. A. (1967). Teachers and testing. Russell Sage Foundation.

The impact of the COVID-19 recession on teaching positions

Recruiting and retaining high-quality teachers is essential for student learning. As a 2019 Learning Policy Institute analysis found, “Investments in instruction, especially high-quality teachers, appear to leverage the largest marginal gains in [student] performance.” Research has shown that teacher cuts during the last recession disproportionately impacted districts and schools serving students of color and students from low-income families. 

Griffith, M. (2020). The Impact of the COVID-19 recession on teaching positions. Learning Policy Institute.

What works in professional development?

A research synthesis confirms the difficulty of translating professional development into student achievement gains despite the intuitive and logical connection. Those responsible for planning and implementing professional development must learn how to critically assess and evaluate the effectiveness of what they do.

Guskey, T. R., & Yoon, K. S.(2009). What works in professional development? Phi Delta Kappan.doi: 10.1177003172170909000709.

Reliability and Validity of Inferences about Teachers Based on Student Scores

Policymakers and school administrators have embraced value-added models of teacher effectiveness as tools for educational improvement. Teacher value-added estimates may be viewed as complicated scores. This Paper examines the use of value-added modeling as a tool to identify effective teachers from ineffective instructors.

Haertel, E. H. (2013). Reliability and Validity of Inferences about Teachers Based on Student Scores. William H. Angoff Memorial Lecture Series. Educational Testing Service.

The Value of Smarter Teachers: International Evidence on Teacher Cognitive Skills and Student Performance

This new research addresses a number of critical questions:  Are a teacher’s cognitive skills a good predictor of teacher quality? This study examines the student achievement of 36 developed countries in the context of teacher cognitive skills. This study finds substantial differences in teacher cognitive skills across countries that are strongly related to student performance.

Hanushek, E. A., Piopiunik, M., & Wiederhold, S. (2014). The value of smarter teachers: International evidence on teacher cognitive skills and student performance (No. w20727). National Bureau of Economic Research.

 

Visible learning: A synthesis of over 800 meta-analyses related to achievement

 

Although the current evidence based fad has turned into a debate about test scores, this book is about using evidence to build and defend a model of teaching and learning. A major contribution is a fascinating benchmark/dashboard for comparing many innovations in teaching and schools.

 

Hattie, J. (2008). Visible learning: A synthesis of over 800 meta-analyses relating to achievement. Routledge.

These states are leveraging Title II of ESSA to modernize and elevate the teaching profession

Contemporary educational theory holds that one of the pivotal causes of inadequate student
achievement, especially in disadvantaged schools, is the inability of schools to adequately
staff classrooms with qualified teachers. Deficits in the quantity of teachers produced and in
the quality of preparation prospective teachers receive have long been singled out as
primary explanations for underqualified teaching.

Ingersoll, R. (2002). Out-of-field teaching, educational inequality, and the organization of schools: An exploratory analysis.

Request for Applications: Education Research Grants

Collectively, IES-funded research should yield outcomes and products that are meaningful, inform stakeholders about the cost and practical benefits and effects of interventions (programs, policies, practices) on relevant outcomes for learners, and contribute to scientific knowledge and theory of teaching, learning, and organizing education systems. NCER expects researchers receiving funding through this program to disseminate evidence in a way that is useful to and accessible by educators, parents, policymakers, researchers, and the public.

Institute of Education Sciences. (2020). Education Research Grants Project: Request for Applications. U.S. Department of Education.

Student Achievement through Staff Development

This book provides research as well as case studies of successful professional development strategies and practices for educators.

Joyce, B. R., & Showers, B. (2002). Student achievement through staff development. ASCD.

Science and the Education of Teachers

This paper highlights the importance of making the preparation of teachers as scientific as possible by basing instruction on scientific evidence and making teaching an applied science.

Kauffman, J. M. (2012). Science and the Education of Teachers. In Education at the Crossroads: The State of Teacher Preparation (Vol. 2, pp. 47-64). Oakland, CA: The Wing Institute.

Proceedings from the Wing Institute’s Fifth Annual Summit on Evidence-Based Education: Education at the Crossroads: The State of Teacher Preparation

This article shared information about the Wing Institute and demographics of the Summit participants. It introduced the Summit topic, sharing performance data on past efforts of school reform that focused on structural changes rather than teaching improvement. The conclusion is that the system has spent enormous resources with virtually no positive results. The focus needs to be on teaching improvement.

Keyworth, R., Detrich, R., & States, J. (2012). Introduction: Proceedings from the Wing Institute’s Fifth Annual Summit on Evidence-Based Education: Education at the Crossroads: The State of Teacher Preparation. In Education at the Crossroads: The State of Teacher Preparation (Vol. 2, pp. ix-xxx). Oakland, CA: The Wing

Does teaching experience increase teacher effectiveness? A review of the research

The goal of this paper is to provide researchers and policymakers with a comprehensive and timely review of this body of work.

Kini, T., & Podolsky, A. (2016). Does teaching experience increase teacher effectiveness? A review of the research. Palo Alto, CA: Learning Policy Institute. Retrieved from https://learningpolicyinstitute.org/sites/default/files/product-files/Teaching_Experience_Report_June_2016.pdf

Changes in teacher education: The Holy Grail of quality

The Teacher Education Committee at Northwestern Oklahoma State University approved the development of a competency-based teacher education program. A subcommittee identified and wrote professional education competencies which students should master prior to program completion.

Lehr, M. (1981). Changes in Teacher Education: The Holy Grail of Quality.

Teacher quality: A report on the preparation and qualifications of public school teachers.

This report is based on efforts by the National Center for Education Statistics to collect data on teacher preparation and qualifications using a nationally representative survey of full-time public school teachers whose main teaching assignment is in English/language arts, social studies/social sciences, foreign language, mathematics, or science (or who teach a self-contained classroom).

Lewis, L., Parsad, B., Carey, N., Bartfai, N., Farris, E., & Smerdon, B. (1999). Teacher quality: A report on the preparation and qualifications of public school teachers. NCES 1999-080. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. Retrieved from https://nces.ed.gov/pubs99/1999080.pdf

An early field-based experience and its effects on pre-service teachers’ practice and student learning

Teacher educators are under increasing pressure to show that preparation programs meaningfully impact instruction among pre-service teachers, who are then influential in student learning. This external pressure is challenging for teacher educators. We present an early field-based course and applied teaching project to examine teaching practices and pupil outcomes.

Maheady, L., Jabot, M., Rey, J., & Michielli-Pendl, J. (2007). An early field-based experience and its impact on pre-service candidates' teaching practice and their pupils' outcomes. Teacher Education and Special Education30(1), 24-33.

More Than Content: The Persistent Cross-Subject Effects of English Language Arts Teachers’ Instruction

This paper investigates the long-term impact of teachers' value-added effects on student learning over multiple years and across subject areas. The study finds that the durable effects of English Language Arts (ELA) teachers are more likely to generalizable across subjects than the instructional effects of math teachers.

Master, B., Loeb, S., & Wyckoff, J. (2017). More Than Content: The Persistent Cross-Subject Effects of English Language Arts Teachers’ Instruction. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 0162373717691611.

Early intervention in reading: From research to practice

This study documents the implementation of research-based strategies to minimize the occurrence of reading difficulties in a first-grade population. Three strategies were implemented. 

Menzies, H. M, Mahdavi, J. N., & Lewis, J. L. (2008). Early intervention in reading: From research to practice. Remedial and Special Education, 29(2), 67-77.

The effect of instructional methods (lecture-discussion versus group discussion) and teaching talent on teacher trainees student learning outcomes.

The aim of this study is to examine difference in the effect of instructional methods (lecture-discussion versus group discussion) and teaching talent on teacher trainees student learning outcomes. It was conducted by a quasi-experimental design using the factorialized (2 x 2) version of the nonequivalent control group design. 

Mutrofin, M., Degeng, I., Ardhana, I. W., & Setyosari, P. (2019). The Effect of Instructional Methods (Lecture-Discussion versus Group Discussion) and Teaching Talent on Teacher Trainees Student Learning Outcomes.

Promoting Educator Effectiveness: The Effects of Two Key Strategies

The National Center for Education Evaluation, a division of the Institute of Education Sciences has released a new research brief that evaluated two strategies for improving educator effectiveness as measured by improvements in student outcomes.  

National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance, Institute of Education Sciences (March 2018).  Promoting Educator Effectiveness: The Effects of Two Key Strategies.

Who Knows if our Teachers are Prepared? Three Different Perspectives on Graduates' Instructional Readiness and the Features of Preservice Preparation that Predict them

This study follows 305 preservice teachers (PSTs) who student taught in Chicago Public Schools (CPS) in 2014-15 and were subsequently hired in CPS in 2015-16. 

Ngang, T. K., Yunus, H. M., & Hashim, N. H. (2015). Soft skills integration in teaching professional training: Novice teachers’ perspectives. Procedia-social and behavioral sciences186, 835-840.

How large are teacher effects? Educational Evaluation and Policy

The authors use data from a four-year experiment in which teachers and students were randomly assigned to classes to estimate teacher effects on student achievement. Teacher effects are estimated as between-teacher (but within-school) variance components of achievement status and residualized achievement gains.

Nye, N., Konstantopoulos, S., & Hedges, L. (2004). How large are teacher effects? Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis26(3), 237–257. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.3102/01623737026003237

 
Using smartphones for formative assessment in the flipped classroom

Flipped classrooms are by design highly interactive. As a result, formative assessment is a necessary component of the flipped classroom. Professors need to be able to assess students' in the class, use this assessment information to inform classroom activities in real time and personalize learning for their students.

Onodipe, G., & Ayadi, M. F. (2020). Using smartphones for formative assessment in the flipped classroom. Journal of Instructional Pedagogies23.

Organizing instruction and study to improve student learning

Much of teaching is about helping students master new knowledge and skills and then helping students not to forget what they have learned. The recommendations in this practice guide are intended to provide teachers with specific strategies for organizing both instruction and students' studying of material to facilitate learning and remembering information, and to enable students to use what they have learned in new situations.

Pashler, H., Bain, P. M., Bottge, B. A., Graesser, A., Koedinger, K., McDaniel, M., & Metcalfe, J. (2007). Organizing Instruction and Study to Improve Student Learning. IES Practice Guide. NCER 2007-2004. National Center for Education Research.

Effects of an early literacy professional development intervention on Head Start teachers and children

Effects of a 1-semester professional development (PD) intervention that included expert coaching with Head Start teachers were investigated in a randomized controlled trial with 88 teachers and 759 children. 

Powell, D. R., Diamond, K. E., Burchinal, M. R., & Koehler, M. J. (2010). Effects of an early literacy professional development intervention on Head Start teachers and children. Journal of Educational Psychology, 102, 299-312.

A historical perspective on the role of collaboration in teacher education reform: Making good on the promise of teaching all students

This article provides an analysis of how collaborative teacher education has developed in terms of practice, discourse, and the relationship between general and special education across three historical stages. It explores how collaborative teacher education between general and special education has been positioned over time in relationship to larger national reform efforts in teacher education.

Pugach, M. C., Blanton, L. P., & Correa, V. I. (2011). A historical perspective on the role of collaboration in teacher education reform: Making good on the promise of teaching all students. Teacher Education and Special Education34(3), 183-200.

Field placement schools and instructional effectiveness

Student teaching has long been considered a cornerstone of teacher preparation. One dimension thought to affect student teacher learning is the kinds of schools in which these experiences occur. Results suggest that better functioning school organizations with positive work environments make desirable settings for teacher learning and that preparation programs, and the districts they supply, would benefit from more strategically using these kinds of schools to prepare future teachers.

Ronfeldt, M. (2015). Field placement schools and instructional effectiveness. Journal of Teacher Education66(4), 304-320.

Does cooperating teachers’ instructional effectiveness improve preservice teachers’ future performance?

Increasingly, states and teacher education programs are establishing minimum requirements for cooperating teachers’ (CTs’) years of experience or tenure. Undergirding these policies is an assumption that to effectively mentor preservice teachers (PSTs), CTs must themselves be instructional effective. The authors test this assumption using statewide administrative data on nearly 2,900 PSTs mentored by over 3,200 CTs.

Ronfeldt, M., Brockman, S. L., & Campbell, S. L. (2018). Does cooperating teachers’ instructional effectiveness improve preservice teachers’ future performance. Educational Researcher, 47(7), 405–418.

Formative assessment: A systematic review of critical teacher prerequisites for classroom practice.

Formative assessment has the potential to support teaching and learning in the classroom. This study reviewed the literature on formative assessment to identify prerequisites for effective use of formative assessment by teachers. The review sought to address the following research question: What teacher prerequisites need to be in place for using formative assessment in their classroom practice?

Schildkamp, K., van der Kleij, F. M., Heitink, M. C., Kippers, W. B., & Veldkamp, B. P. (2020). Formative assessment: A systematic review of critical teacher prerequisites for classroom practice. International Journal of Educational Research103, 101602.

Soft skills integration in teaching professional training: Novice teachers’ perspectives.

This paper is part of a bigger research project and focuses on issues related to soft skills and teaching professional training. The purpose of this paper is to explore the extent of soft skills that has been integrated in teaching professional training from the novice teachers’ perspectives.

Tang, K. N., Yunus, H. M., & Hashim, N. H. (2015). Soft skills integration in teaching professional training: Novice teachers’ perspectives. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 186, 835–840.

 
The Mirage: Confronting the truth about our quest for teacher development

"The Mirage" describes the widely held perception among education leaders that they already know how to help teachers improve, and that they could achieve their goal of great teaching in far more classrooms if they just applied what they knew more widely.

TNTP. (2015). The Mirage: Confronting the truth about our quest for teacher development. Retrieved from: https://tntp.org/publications/view/the-mirage-confronting-the-truth-about-our-quest-for-teacher-development

The power of teacher teams: With cases, analyses, and strategies for success

While most educators believe working in teams is valuable, not all team efforts lead to instructional improvement. Through richly detailed case studies The Power of Teacher Teams demonstrates how schools can transform their teams into more effective learning communities that foster teacher leadership.

Troen, V., & Boles, K. (2012). The power of teacher teams: With cases, analyses, and strategies for success. Corwin Press.

Differential reinforcement as treatment for behavior disorders: Procedural and functional variations

For many years, differential reinforcement has been a prevalent and preferred treatment procedure for the reduction of behavior disorders. This paper reviews the procedural variations of differential reinforcement and discusses their functional properties.

Vollmer, T. R., & Iwata, B. A. (1992). Differential reinforcement as treatment for behavior disorders: Procedural and functional variations. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 13(4), 393-417.

Meta-Analysis of the Effects of Academic Interventions and Modifications on Student Behavior Outcomes

This meta-analysis of single case designed studies examines the effect of academic interventions on student behavior. The academic interventions examined included modifying task difficulty, instruction in reading, mathematics, or writing and contingent reinforcement for academic performance. The study concluded that these interventions produced positive effects on student behavior issues observed in the classroom. The effects were observed to have a moderate effect size ranging from 0.42 to 0.64. The effects were stronger for increasing student time on task than for reducing disruptive behavior, but both showed positive impacts. This research strengthens the available evidence that well-designed instruction is effective component in creating an effective classroom climate.

Warmbold-Brann, K., Burns, M. K., Preast, J. L., Taylor, C. N., & Aguilar, L. N. (2017). Meta-Analysis of the Effects of Academic Interventions and Modifications on Student Behavior Outcomes. School Psychology Quarterly. DOI: 10.1037/spq0000207

Strategies for creating effective school leadership teams: Considerations packet

This Considerations Packet is designed to support school leadership teams as they guide school improvement efforts. Topics include the rationale for using a team approach, team composition, and necessary skills and responsibilities of the leadership team.

William & Mary School of Education Training and Technical Assistance Center. (2011). Strategies for creating effective school leadership teams: Considerations packet. Williamsburg, VA: Author.

Creating Effective Teachers: Concise Answers for Hard Questions. An Addendum to the Report "Teacher Preparation Research: Current Knowledge, Gaps, and Recommendations

This study examines the extent that subject matter knowledge contributes to teacher effectiveness; the extent to which pedagogical, learning theory, or child development contribute to teacher effectiveness; how high quality field experience impacts teacher effectiveness; and other factors that contribute to effective teacher preparation.

Wilson, S. M., & Floden, R. E. (2003). Creating effective teachers: Concise answers for hard questions. An addendum to the report. AACTE Publications, 1307 New York Avenue, NW, Suite 300, Washington, DC 20005-4701.

Reviewing the Evidence on How Teacher Professional Development Affects Student Achievement. Issues & Answers.

The purpose of this study is to examine research to answer the question, What is the impact of teacher professional development on student achievement.

Yoon, K. S., Duncan, T., Lee, S. W. Y., Scarloss, B., & Shapley, K. L. (2007). Reviewing the Evidence on How Teacher Professional Development Affects Student Achievement. Issues & Answers. REL 2007-No. 033. Regional Educational Laboratory Southwest (NJ1).

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